Figure 1: My 1967 thesis drawing of an excitable membrane showing three separate types of ion channels Na, K and leak (L), as well as the Na-K ATPase pump, a "carrier," a serine protease modeled ...

passively through ion channels or actively through ion pumps such as symporters and antiporters. Animal toxins can modulate action potentials and are important leads for therapeutics. Here ...

Nerve cells are the information carriers in our brain. When transferring signals, they change their electrical charge by ...